Theory and Hypothesis

THEORY 

A theory is an attempt to develop a general explanation for some phenomenon. It is a well-established principle that has been developed to explain some aspect of the natural world. 

It defines non-observable constructs (mental abstractions such as personality, creativity, intelligence, etc.) that are inferred from observable facts and events and that are thought to have an effect on the phenomenon under study. A theory describes the relationship among key variables for purposes of explaining a current state or predicting future occurrences. A theory is primarily concerned with explanation and therefore focuses on determining cause-effect relationships.

A theory arises from repeated observation and testing and incorporates facts, laws, predictions, and tested hypotheses that are widely accepted.

Researchers engaged in pure/basic research devote their energies to the formulation and reformulation of theories and may not be concerned with their practical applications. However, when a theory has been established, it may suggest many applications of practical value. Indeed, ‘there is nothing more practical than a good theory’ (John Dewey).

HYPOTHESIS

A hypothesis is the researcher’s tentative predictions of the results of the research findings. Hypothesis is a specific, testable prediction about what the researcher expects to happen in her/his study. For example, a study designed to look at the relationship between study habits and test anxiety might have a hypothesis that states, ‘This study is designed to assess the hypothesis that students with better study habits will suffer less test anxiety.’ Unless the study is exploratory in nature, the hypothesis should always explain what the researcher expects to happen during the course of her/his experiment or research.

While the terms are sometimes used interchangeably in general practice, the difference between a theory and a hypothesis is important when studying experimental design. Some important distinctions to note include:

• A theory predicts events in general terms, while a hypothesis makes a specific prediction about a specified set of circumstances.

• A theory has been extensively tested and is generally accepted, while a hypothesis is a speculative guess that has yet to be tested.

Hypotheses are more common in quantitative than qualitative research. Hypotheses are formulated prior to the execution of the study. They are formulated on the basis of the knowledge gained from a theory or review of related literature. 

Functions of Hypotheses

In scientific inquiry, hypotheses serve two important functions; the development of theory, and the statement of parts of an existing theory in testable form.

Hypotheses formulation is considered as the first of the six levels of theory generation (Snow, 1973). 

The most common use of hypotheses is to test whether an existing theory can be used to solve a problem.

Characteristics of a Good Hypothesis

• A good hypothesis is based on a sound rationale; it is not a ‘wild guess’ but a reasoned prediction. It is a tentative but rational explanation for the predicted outcome.

• A good hypothesis states as clearly as possible the expected relationship or difference between two variables in measurable terms.

• A well stated and defined hypothesis must be testable.

Types of Hypotheses

• Inductive Hypothesis is a generalization made from a number of observations.

• Deductive Hypothesis is derived from theory and is aimed at providing evidence that supports, expands, or contradicts aspects of a given theory.

• Research Hypothesis (H) is a formal affirmative statement predicting a single research outcome. It is a statement regarding the expected relationship or difference between two variables. It states the relationship the researcher expects to verify through the collection and analysis of data. 

• For example, a number of years ago the hypothesis was formulated that ‘there is a positive causal relationship between cigarette smoking and the incidence of coronary heart disease’. In behavioural sciences one might propose the hypothesis that ‘UGC-NET aspirants taught research methodology through discussion and problem solving method would score better in the UGC-NET exam than those taught through the conventional method’.

Research hypotheses can be Nondirectional, Directional or Null.

• Nondirectional Hypothesis indicates that a relationship or difference exists but does not indicate the direction of the difference.

• Directional Hypothesis indicates that a relationship or difference exists and indicates the direction of the difference.

• Null Hypothesis (N) is a statement of the research hypothesis in negative or null form. It states that there will be no significant relationship or difference between variables. For example, the statement that ‘there is no positive causal relationship between cigarette smoking and the incidence of coronary heart disease’; or, ‘there will be no significant difference between the UGC-NET exam scores of UGC-NET aspirants taught research methodology through discussion and problem solving method or the conventional method’.

• The Null hypothesis relates to a statistical method of interpreting conclusions about population characteristics that are inferred from the variable relationships observed in samples. 

• The null hypothesis asserts that the observed differences or relationships result merely from chance errors inherent in the sampling process. 

• Most hypotheses are the opposite of the Null hypothesis. In such a case if the researcher rejects the Null hypothesis, s/he accepts the research hypothesis, concluding that the magnitude of the observed variable relationship is probably too great to attribute to sampling error. 

TYPES OF RESEARCH

Research can be classified into many different types. Some important ones are discussed in the following sections. 

• Basic/Fundamental/Pure Research is conducted to develop or refine theory, not to solve immediate practical problems. It involves developing and testing theories and hypotheses that are intellectually challenging to the researcher but may or may not have practical application at the present time or in the future. The knowledge produced through pure research is sought in order to add to the existing body of research methods. While this type of research contributes to our understanding of the human mind and behavior, it does not necessarily help solve immediate practical problems. 

• Applied Research is conducted to find solutions to specific, practical problems; for policy formulation, administration and understanding of a phenomenon. It is interested in finding solutions to problems that impact daily life. 

Applied research can be carried out by academic or industrial institutions. Often, an academic institution such as a university will have a specific applied research program funded by an industrial partner interested in that program. 

• Most researches in social sciences are applied in nature. 

• Quantitative Research. The purpose of quantitative research is to generalize about or control phenomena. 

An important assumption that underlies quantitative research is that the world in which we live and carry out our research is relatively stable, uniform and coherent; therefore it can be measured, understood and classified. 

Key features of qualitative research include defining the problem or question to be studied and formulating hypotheses predicting the results of the research before the study begins; controlling contextual factors that might influence the results of the study; collecting data from samples of participants; and using numerical, statistical approaches to analyse the collected data. 

Quantitative Research approaches are intended to describe current conditions, investigate relationships, and cause-effect phenomena. 

• Qualitative Research. The purpose of qualitative research is to provide in-depth descriptions of unique settings and people. 

An important belief that underlies qualitative research is that the world is neither stable, coherent, nor uniform, and therefore, ‘truth’ as sought by qualitative researchers cannot be obtained because perspectives and understandings differ from group to group. 

Qualitative methods involve the collection and analysis of primarily nonnumerical data obtained from observation, interviews, tape recordings, documents and the like. 

In recent years, qualitative research methods have become popular and have attracted many advocates. 

Qualitative approaches include a number of methods such as ethnology, ethnomethodology, case study, phenomenology and symbolic interaction. The focus of these methods is on deep description of aspects of people’s everyday perspectives and contexts. 

Both Quantitative and Qualitative approaches of research use methods (quantitative/qualitative) to describe what is. Both these approaches collect data to describe the current status of the subject of research. Thus, both these approaches are descriptive in nature and are also called Descriptive Researches. 

• Historical Research describes what was. It is a form of qualitative research that attempts interpreting past events. The process involves investigating, recording, analysing and interpreting the events of the past for the purpose of discovering generalizations that are helpful in understanding the past and the present and, to a limited extent, in anticipating the future. 

Historians work with data that already are available in a variety of forms. Primary Sources of data are provided by first person eyewitnesses or authors. They are reported by an actual observer or participant in an event. Documents, Remains or Relics and Oral Testimony are examples of Primary Sources of historical data. 

Non-first-person accounts are called Secondary Sources of historical data. These are accounts of an event not actually witnessed by the reporter. Because of the distortion in passing on information, historians prefer to work with primary sources of data. 

External Criticism is used to assess the authenticity of data. Internal Criticism is used to assess the truthfulness of data. 

Although Historical Research usually employs qualitative techniques, it can also use quantitative techniques. 

• Experimental Research seeks to investigate cause-effect relationships. It describes what will be when certain variables (factors/quantities which are liable to change) are carefully controlled or manipulated. The focus is on variable relationships. 

The experimental researcher controls the selection of participants by choosing them from a single pool and assigning them at random to different causal treatments. Deliberate manipulation is always a part of the experimental method. The researcher also controls contextual variables that might interfere with the study. 

Because of random selection and assigning of participants into different treatments, experimental research permits true cause-effect statements to be made. 

• Survey Research is a kind of descriptive research which is very popular in social sciences, humanities and education. In Survey Research, numerical data are collected to know the preferences, attitudes, practices, concerns, or interests of some group. Data are collected by self administered instruments such as questionnaires, opinionnaires, rating-scales, interviews etc. 

The decennial census is an example of Survey research. 

A major problem complicating Survey research and other descriptive researches is the failure of participants to return questionnaires or cooperate in interviews. 

• Correlational Research is a kind of quantitative descriptive research. It examines the degree of relationship that exists between two or more variables (Variables are factors/quantities which are liable to change; academic achievement, emotional intelligence, parental support, career choices, socioeconomic status, quality of life,etc. are examples of a few variables studied in social sciences, humanities and education). 

A correlation is a quantitative measure of the degree of correspondence between two or more variables (e.g., parental support and academic achievement). The degree of relationship is measured by a correlation coefficient. A correlation coefficient of + 1.00 indicates that two variables are highly related and a coefficient of .00 indicates that there is no relationship between the variables. 

If two variables are highly related, it does not necessarily mean that one is the cause of the other; there may be a third factor (variable) that ‘causes’ both the related variables. 

• Causal- Comparative Research is a kind of descriptive research that seeks to investigate cause and effect relations between two or more different programmes, methods, or groups. 

The activity thought to make a difference (the programme, method,or group) is called the causal factor, treatment, or independent variable. The effect is called the dependent variable. 

In most causal-comparative research studies, the researcher does NOT have control over causal factor because it already has occurred or cannot be manipulated. This makes cause-effect conclusions tenuous and tentative. 

Causal- Comparative research is similar to Ex-post-facto research (in which the researcher cannot manipulate the independent variable because it already has occurred in the past) and different from experimental research (in which true cause and effect statements can be made because the researcher can deliberately manipulate the causal factor/independent variable). 

Causal-comparative research is useful in those circumstances when it is impossible or unethical to manipulate the causal factor. 

The conclusion that, because two factors or variables go together, one must be the cause and other the effect, is termed as the post-hoc fallacy. For example, earned income as an effect of the number of years of education completed. Post-hoc fallacy is one of the most serious dangers of descriptive research that uses ex-post-facto and causal-comparative procedures. 

Research as a method of gaining knowledge

INTRODUCTION

Human beings have always been curious to explore their biological, physical, and social world. This inquisitiveness of human nature has helped generate a lot of information regarding the biological physical and social aspects of the world we live in. 

In their quest to know the ‘truth’ or reality of the world in which human beings live, they have employed a variety of methods to gain understanding of the world. 

In early times tradition and personal experiences were the only methods of gaining knowledge. Later, revealed knowledge (as given in religious scriptures), and expert advice became the methods of knowing.

Aristotle proposed deductive logic (the process of deriving logical conclusions about particular instances from general premises or statements) as the method of knowing. 

Francis Bacon on the other hand, advocated inductive logic (the process of inferring a generalised conclusion from particular instances).

Charles Darwin popularised the inductive-deductive approach as a method of knowing.

In recent times science (the intellectual and practical activity encompassing the systematic study of the structure and behaviour of the physical and natural world through observation and experiment) has emerged as a discipline. Philosophers like John Dewey have advocated that an approach based on the methods of science should be employed for gaining knowledge of the physical and natural world.

This scientific and disciplined inquiry approach, which has helped the mankind in gaining objective understanding of the natural and social world, is called research. 

The Scientific and disciplined inquiry approach is made up of many steps. The four crucial steps are:

1. Recognize and identify a problem to be studied;

2. Describe and execute procedures to collect information about the questions or problem being studied;

3. Analyse the collected information;

4. State results or implications based on analysis of the information.

Compared to other methods of knowing, such as tradition, expert advice, personal experience, and inductive and deductive logic, a scientific and disciplined inquiry approach provides the most unbiased and verifiable understandings.

MEANING OF RESEARCH

The word research is composed of two syllables, ‘re’ and ‘search’. re is a prefix meaning ‘again, anew or over again’; search is a verb meaning ‘to examine closely and carefully, to test and try, or to probe’. Together they form a noun describing ‘a careful, systematic, patient study and investigation in some field of knowledge, undertaken to establish facts or principles’.

The Oxford English Dictionary defines research as ‘the systematic investigation into and study of materials and sources in order to establish facts and reach new conclusions’. 

Simply stated, research is the application of scientific and disciplined inquiry approach to the study of problems and issues of the natural and social world.

The primary goal of research is to explain or help understand relevant issues, questions and processes.

Secondary goals of research are to help others understand, predict future outcomes, improve future research and practice, and raise new questions to research.

Rarely does any single study produce definitive answers to research questions. Rather, understandings accumulated from many studies are the basis of progress and understanding.

Research is a process of collecting, analysing and interpreting information to answer questions. But to qualify as research, the process must have certain characteristics: it must, as far as possible, be controlled, rigorous, systematic, valid and verifiable, empirical and critical.